What determines the voltage of a battery?

The voltage of a battery is a fundamental characteristic of a battery, which is determined by the chemical reactions in the battery, the concentrations of the battery components, and the polarization of the battery. The voltage calculated from equilibrium conditions is typically known as the nominal battery voltage.

Can a battery be discharged below a certain level?

In many battery types, including lead acid batteries, the battery cannot be discharged below a certain level or permanent damage may be done to the battery. This voltage is called the "cut-off voltage" and depends on the type of battery, its temperature and the battery's rate of discharge.

What happens if a battery reaches a low voltage threshold?

To prevent over discharge of cells and resulting damage, battery managements system will terminate discharge if any of the cells reached low voltage threshold. Cell based termination voltage is usually set to lower value than pack based threshold divided by number of serial cells, so that the difference can allow for a small unbalance.

What causes a difference in battery voltages?

A difference in cell voltages is a most typical manifestation of unbalance, which is attempted to be corrected either instantaneously or gradually through by-passing cells with higher voltage. However, the underlying reasons for voltage differences on the level of battery chemistry and discharge kinetics are not widely understood.

What is the resulting voltage deviation V?

The resulting voltage deviation Δ V depends on all three parameters discussed in Section 5.1. (8) Δ V = O C V (SoC) − O C V (SoC ¯) + Δ R abs ⋅ I Together, Eqs. (7) and (8) formalize the relation between parameter distributions and resulting voltage distributions.

How are battery voltage distributions simulated?

Cell voltage distributions are simulated using battery system modeling approach. Statistical methods are used to reduce computational complexity of system models. Digital twins for large-scale and investment-intensive Li-ion battery systems in marine and stationary applications have drawn increasing interest in recent years.